The American Psychological Association (abbreviated APA) is the largest scientific and professional organization of psychologists Psychology is the scientific study of human or other animal mental functions and behaviors. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist. Psychologists are classified as social or behavioral scientists. Psychological research can be considered either basic or applied. Psychologists attempt to understand the in the U.S. ^ b. English is the de facto language of American government and the sole language spoken at home by 80% of Americans age five and older. Spanish is the second most commonly spoken language and is the world's largest association of psychologists with around 152,000 members including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants and students and has an annual budget of around $115m. The American Psychological Association is occasionally confused with the American Psychiatric Association The American Psychiatric Association is the main professional organization of psychiatrists and trainee psychiatrists in the United States, and the most influential worldwide. Its some 38,000 members are mainly American but some are international. The association publishes various journals and pamphlets, as well as the Diagnostic and Statistical, which also uses the acronym APA.

Contents

Profile

Mission

The mission of the APA[1] is to advance the creation, communication and application of psychological knowledge to benefit society and improve people’s lives.

The American Psychological Association aspires to excel as a valuable, effective and influential organization advancing psychology as a science, serving as:

The APA core values statement

The American Psychological Association commits to its vision through a mission based upon the following values:

Awards

Each year, the APA recognizes top psychologists with the "Distinguished Contributions" Awards; these awards are the highest honors given by the APA, and among the highest honors that a psychologist or psychology researcher can receive.

Membership and title of "psychologist"

Main article: Psychologist#United States and Canada There are many different types of psychologists, as is reflected by the 56 different divisions of the American Psychological Association . Psychologists are generally described as being either "applied" or "research-oriented". The common terms used to describe this central division in psychology are "scientists" or &

APA policy on the use of the title psychologist is contained in the Model Act for State Licensure of Psychologists[2]: Psychologists have earned a doctoral degree in psychology and may not use the title “psychologist” and/or deliver psychological services to the public, unless the psychologist is licensed or specifically exempted from licensure under the law. State licensing laws specify state specific requirements for the education and training of psychologists leading to licensure. Psychologists who are exempted from licensure could include researchers, educators, or general applied psychologists who furnish services outside of the health and mental health field.

The most commonly recognized psychology professionals are clinical and counseling psychologists, those who provide psychotherapy Psychotherapy, or personal counselling with a psychotherapist, is an intentional interpersonal relationship used by trained psychotherapists to aid a client or patient in problems of living and/or administer and interpret psychological "tests."

Full membership with the APA in United States and Canada requires doctoral training whereas associate membership requires at least two years of postgraduate studies in psychology or approved related discipline. The minimal requirement of a doctoral dissertation related to psychology for full membership can be waived in certain circumstances where there is evidence that significant contribution or performance in the field of psychology has been made.[3]

Present organizational structure

APA comprises an executive office, a publishing operation, offices that address administrative, business, information technology, and operational needs, and five substantive directorates:

Affiliate organizations

The American Psychological Association Practice Organization (APAPO) and the Education Advocacy Trust, which operates autonomously as a part of APAPO, are 501(c)(6) entities, separate from APA. They engage in advocacy on behalf of psychological practitioners and health care consumers and psychology education, respectively.

The Psychologically Healthy Workplace program

The Psychologically Healthy Workplace Program (PHWP) is a collaborative effort between the American Psychological Association and the APA Practice Organization designed to help employers optimize employee well-being and organizational performance. The PHWP includes APA’s Psychologically Healthy Workplace Awards, a variety of APA Practice Organization resources, including PHWP Web content, e-newsletter, podcast and blog, and support of local programs currently implemented by 52 state, provincial and territorial psychological associations as a mechanism for driving grassroots change in local business communities. The awards are designed to recognize organizations for their efforts to foster employee health and well-being while enhancing organizational performance. The award program highlights a variety of workplaces, large and small, profit and non-profit, in diverse geographical settings. Applicants are evaluated on their efforts in the following five areas: employee involvement, work-life balance Work-life balance is a broad concept including proper prioritizing between "work" on one hand and "life" (pleasure, leisure, family and spiritual development) on the other. Related, though broader, terms include "lifestyle balance" and "life balance", employee growth and development, health and safety, and employee recognition. Awards are given at the local and national level.[4][5]

2010 award winners: American Cast Iron Pipe Company, Tallahassee Memorial HealthCare, Advanced Solutions (an HP company), Toronto Police Service and Leaders Bank.

APA Style

Main article: APA style American Psychological Association Style is a set of rules developed to assist reading comprehension in the social and behavioral sciences. Designed to ensure clarity of communication, the rules are designed to "move the idea forward with a minimum of distraction and a maximum of precision." The Publication Manual of the American

American Psychological Association (APA) Style is a set of rules developed to assist reading comprehension in the social and behavioral sciences. Designed to ensure clarity of communication, the rules are designed to "move the idea forward with a minimum of distraction and a maximum of precision."[6] The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association contains the rules for every aspect of writing, especially in the social sciences The social sciences are the fields of academic scholarship that explore aspects of human society. "Social science" is commonly used as an umbrella term to refer to a plurality of fields outside of the natural sciences. These include: anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, history, linguistics, political science, international from determining authorship to constructing a table A table is both a mode of visual communication and also a means of arranging data. The table is not the only means of arranging data. The use of tables is pervasive throughout all communication, research and data analysis. Tables appear in print media, handwritten notes, computer software, architectural ornamentation, traffic signs and many other to avoiding plagiarism Plagiarism, as defined in the 1995 Random House Compact Unabridged Dictionary, is the "use or close imitation of the language and thoughts of another author and the representation of them as one's own original work." Within academia, plagiarism by students, professors, or researchers is considered academic dishonesty or academic fraud, and constructing accurate reference citations.

Early editions of the Publication Manual

The Publication Manual was established in 1929 as a seven-page document with a set of procedures to increase the ease of reading comprehension (APA, 2009a, p. xiii).[7] Created under the sponsorship of the United States National Research Council The National Research Council of the USA is the working arm of the United States National Academies, carrying out most of the studies done in their names, its originators included psychologists There are many different types of psychologists, as is reflected by the 56 different divisions of the American Psychological Association . Psychologists are generally described as being either "applied" or "research-oriented". The common terms used to describe this central division in psychology are "scientists" or &, anthropologists Anthropology is the study of humanity. Anthropology has origins in the natural sciences, the humanities, and social sciences. The term "anthropology", pronounced /ænθrɵˈpɒlədʒi/, is from the Greek ἄνθρωπος, anthrōpos, "human", and -λογία, -logia, "discourse" or "study", and was first, and publishing professionals.

In 1952, the booklet was expanded and published as a 55-page supplement in Psychological Bulletin Psychological Bulletin is a peer-reviewed academic journal specializing in literature reviews. It was founded by Johns Hopkins psychologist James Mark Baldwin in 1904. immediately after he had bought out James McKeen Cattell's share of Psychological Review, which the two had founded ten years earlier. Baldwin gave the editorship of both journals with revisions made in 1957 and 1967 (APA, 1952, 1957, 1967).[8][9][10] The first edition covered word choice, grammar, punctuation, formatting, journal publication policies, and "wrapping and shipping" (APA, Council of Editors, 1952, p. 442).

In response to the growing complexities of scientific reporting, subsequent editions were released in 1974, 1983, 1994, and 2001. Primarily known for the simplicity of its reference citation style, the Publication Manual also established standards for language use that had far-reaching effects. Particularly influential were the "Guidelines for Nonsexist Language in APA Journals," first published as a modification to the 1974 edition, which provided practical alternatives to sexist language then in common usage.[11][12] The guidelines for reducing bias in language have been updated over the years and presently provide practical guidance for writing about race, ethnicity, age, gender, sexual orientation, and disability status (APA, 2009, pp. 70–77; see also APA, 2009b).[13]

Sixth Edition of the Publication Manual

The sixth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association was released in July 2009 after 4 years of development. The Publication Manual Revision Task Force of the American Psychological Association established parameters for the revision based on published criticism, user comments, commissioned reviews, and input from psychologists, nurses, librarians, business leaders, publishing professionals, and APA governance groups (APA, 2007a, 2007b)[14][15]. To accomplish these revisions, the Task Force appointed working groups of four to nine members in seven areas: Bias-Free Language, Ethics, Graphics, Journal Article Reporting Standards, References, Statistics, and Writing Style (APA, 2009, pp. xvii-xviii).

Thoroughly reorganized and updated, the sixth edition was significantly revised to incorporate the technological advances that had affected virtually all areas of scientific communication since the previous edition was published (APA, 2001). Specific revisions in the sixth edition include

APA Style online

With the release of the sixth edition of the Publication Manual, there are multiple places where you can learn about APA Style online. Among them are the following:

Resources on apastyle.org

Resources on the APA Style Blog

The APA Style Blog is a repository for current information about APA Style. It addresses commonly asked questions from readers as well as areas the manual may not address, such as

It also answers questions about how to cite regular references as well as electronic references.

Other topic areas include

The "categories" on the right-hand side of the blog show the different areas that have been explored, and users can also search the site using a Google search box to find answers to their questions.

Follow the APA Style Team on Twitter

You can follow the APA Style Team on Twitter Twitter is a social networking and microblogging service, owned and operated by Twitter Inc., that enables its users to send and read other user messages called tweets. Tweets are text-based posts of up to 140 characters displayed on the author's profile page. Tweets are publicly visible by default, however senders can restrict message delivery to to get updates on all things related to APA Style, including announcements about new blog posts, tips and tricks on writing and style, new features on apastyle.org, and more. The Twitter username is @APA_Style.

Errors in the First Printing of the Sixth Edition

Despite multiple reviews of the manuscript at the copyediting and proofreading stages by senior editors, staff realized shortly after the manual had gone to press that the sample papers contained errors. They took prompt action to correct the errors and to post the fully corrected papers on the APA Style website where they were made available for viewing and downloading. Staff concurrently examined the rest of the manuscript and found the following additional errors:

In the interest of transparency (and following the same procedure that was followed for the fifth edition), staff posted all of the corrections online in a single document on October 1, 2009, and shortly thereafter alerted users to the existence of the corrections in a blog entry. On the same day the corrections were posted, an individual posting to the Educational and Behavioral Sciences Section listserv (EBBSS-L) of the American Library Association The American Library Association is a non-profit organization based in the United States that promotes libraries and library education internationally. It is the oldest and largest library association in the world, with more than 65,000 members alerted readers to what she described as the "many" errors in the first printing and speculated that "some but not all" would be corrected in a second printing. On October 5, 2009, APA staff responded to the note clarifying that errors were found in the sample papers, that the papers had been corrected and posted online, that the substantive guidance in the manual was correct and accurate as printed, and that a full list of corrections could be found at the APA Style website.[16]

On October 13, 2009, the article "Correcting a Style Guide" was published in the online newspaper Inside Higher Education that included interviews with several individuals who defined the errors as "egregious" (Epstein, 2009).[17] The article, along with rumors spread on various listervs, resulted in exaggerated accounts of both the magnitude and the extent of the errors, with some reports on Amazon.com Amazon.com, Inc. is an American-based multinational electronic commerce company. Headquartered in Seattle, Washington, it is America's largest online retailer, with nearly three times the Internet sales revenue of the runner up, Staples, Inc., as of January 2010 claiming more than 80 pages of errors had occurred.

APA responded to the increasing confusion by issuing an apology and implementing a return/replacement program for purchasers who wished to exchange their first printing copies for second printing copies of the Publication Manual. The first edition copies returned to APA were destroyed. The second and all subsequent printings of the Publication Manual have been fully corrected.

Publications

The American Psychologist The American Psychologist is the official journal of the American Psychological Association. It contains archival documents and articles covering current issues in psychology, the science and practice of psychology, and psychology's contribution to public policy is the Association's official journal. APA also publishes 57 other journals encompassing most specialty areas in the field, including:[18]

PsycINFO

APA maintains an abstract database named PsycINFO. It contains citations and summaries dating from the 1800s, including journal articles, book chapters, books, technical reports, and dissertations within the field of psychology. As of January 2010, PsycINFO has collected information from 2,457 journals.[19] Similar databases operated by other organizations include PsycLit and Psychological Abstracts.

History

Founding

The APA was founded in July 1892 at Clark University Clark University is a private research university and liberal arts college in Worcester, Massachusetts by a group of 26 men. Its first president was G. Stanley Hall Granville Stanley Hall was a pioneering American psychologist and educator. His interests focused on childhood development and evolutionary theory of . Hall was the first president of the American Psychological Association and the first president of Clark University. There are currently 54 divisions in the APA,[20] and it is affiliated with 60 state, territorial, and Canadian provincial associations.[21]

Dominance of clinical psychology

Due to the dominance of clinical psychology Clinical psychology is an integration of science, theory and clinical knowledge for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development. Central to its practice are psychological assessment and psychotherapy, although clinical in APA, several research-focused groups have broken away from the organization. These include the Psychonomic Society The Psychonomic Society is one of the primary societies for general scientific experimental psychology in the United States. Although open to all areas of experimental psychology, its members typically study areas related to cognitive psychology, such as learning, memory, attention, motivation, perception, categorization, decision making, and in 1959 (with a primarily cognitive orientation), and the Association for Psychological Science The Association for Psychological Science , previously the American Psychological Society, is a non-profit organization whose mission is to promote, protect, and advance the interests of scientifically oriented psychology in research, application, teaching, and the improvement of human welfare. APS is dedicated to the advancement of scientific (which changed its name from the American Psychological Society The Association for Psychological Science , previously the American Psychological Society, is a non-profit organization whose mission is to promote, protect, and advance the interests of scientifically oriented psychology in research, application, teaching, and the improvement of human welfare. APS is dedicated to the advancement of scientific in early 2006) in 1988 (with a broad focus on the science and research of psychology). Theodore H. Blau Theodore H. Blau was a noted clinical, police and forensic psychologist who was the first clinician in independent practice to be elected president of the American Psychological Association in 1977. He was a prolific writer and wrote, among other books and articles, a well known book on Forensic psychology was the first clinician in independent practice to be elected president of the American Psychological Association in 1977.[22]

Past presidents

Controversies

This article's Criticism or Controversy section(s) may mean the article does not present a neutral point of view of the subject. It may be better to integrate the material in those sections into the article as a whole. (May 2010)

Conversion therapy

In 1975 APA issued a supporting statement that homosexuality is not a mental disorder.[23][24][25] There is a concern in the mental health community that the advancement of conversion therapy itself causes social harm by disseminating inaccurate views about sexual orientation and the ability of gay and bisexual people to lead happy, healthy lives.[26] Most mainstream health organizations are critical of conversion therapy and no mainstream medical organization endorses conversion therapy.[26][27][28][29][note 1]

The APA adopted a resolution in August 2009 stating that mental health professionals should avoid telling clients that they can change their sexual orientation through therapy or other treatments. The approval, by APA's governing Council of Representatives, came at APA's annual convention, during which a task force presented a report[30] that in part examined the efficacy of so-called "reparative therapy," or sexual orientation change efforts (SOCE).

The "Resolution on Appropriate Affirmative Responses to Sexual Orientation Distress and Change Efforts"[31] also advises that parents, guardians, young people and their families avoid sexual orientation treatments that portray homosexuality as a mental illness or developmental disorder and instead seek psychotherapy, social support and educational services "that provide accurate information on sexual orientation and sexuality, increase family and school support and reduce rejection of sexual minority youth."

Psychologists advising interrogators

When it emerged that psychologists as part of the Behavioral Science Consultation Team were advising interrogators in Guantánamo and other U.S. facilities on improving the effectiveness of the "Enhanced interrogation techniques", the Association called on the U.S. government to prohibit the use of unethical interrogation techniques and labeled specific techniques as torture.[32][citation needed] Critics pointed out that the APA declined to advise its members not to participate in such interrogations.[33] This was in contrast to the American Psychiatric Association ban in May, 2006 of all direct participation in interrogations by psychiatrists,[34] and the American Medical Association ban in June 2006 of the direct participation in interrogations of physicians.[35]

In September 2008, APA’s members passed a resolution stating that psychologists may not work in settings where “persons are held outside of, or in violation of, either International Law (e.g., the UN Convention Against Torture and the Geneva Conventions) or the U.S. Constitution (where appropriate), unless they are working directly for the persons being detained or for an independent third party working to protect human rights.”[36] The resolution became official APA policy in February 2009.

Amending the Ethics Code

In February 2010 APA's Council of Representatives voted to amend the association's Code of Ethics[37] to make clear that its standards can never be interpreted to justify or defend violating human rights. Following are the two ethical standards and the changes adopted. Language that is in bold was newly adopted:

1.02, Conflicts Between Ethics and Law, Regulations, or Other Governing Legal Authority

If psychologists’ ethical responsibilities conflict with law, regulations, or other governing legal authority, psychologists clarify the nature of the conflict, make known their commitment to the Ethics Code and take reasonable steps to resolve the conflict consistent with the General Principles and Ethical Standards of the Ethics Code. Under no circumstances may this standard be used to justify or defend violating human rights.

1.03, Conflicts Between Ethics and Organizational Demands

If the demands of an organization with which psychologists are affiliated or for whom they are working are in conflict with this Ethics Code, psychologists clarify the nature of the conflict, make known their commitment to the Ethics Code, and take reasonable steps to resolve the conflict consistent with the General Principles and Ethical Standards of the Ethics Code. Under no circumstances may this standard be used to justify or defend violating human rights.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Mainstream health organizations critical of conversion therapy include the American Medical Association, American Psychiatric Association, the American Psychological Association, the American Counseling Association, the National Association of Social Workers, the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Association of School Administrators, the American Federation of Teachers, the National Association of School Psychologists, the American Academy of Physician Assistants, and the National Education Association.

References

  1. ^ APA.org
  2. ^ [http://www.apa.org/about/governance/council/policy/model-act-2010.pdf
  3. ^ APA Membership information
  4. ^ Psychologically Healthy Workplace Program, apapracticecentral.org
  5. ^ Psychologically Healthy Workplace Program website, phwa.org
  6. ^ Apastyle.apa.org
  7. ^ Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). 2009. Washington, DC
  8. ^ American Psychological Association, Council of Editors. (1952). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Psychological Bulletin, 49(Suppl., Pt. 2), 389-449.
  9. ^ American Psychological Association. (1957). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (Rev. ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
  10. ^ American Psychological Association. (1967). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (Rev. ed.). Washington, DC: Author
  11. ^ American Psychological Association, Task Force on Issues of Sexual Bias in Graduate Education. (1975). Guidelines for nonsexist language in APA journals. American Psychologist, 30, 682-684. doi:10.1037/h0076869
  12. ^ APA Publication Manual Task Force. (1977). Guidelines for nonsexist language in APA journals [Change Sheet 2]. American Psychologist, 32, 487-494. doi:v10.1037/0003-066X.32.6.487
  13. ^ American Psychological Association. (2009b). Chapter 3: Writing clearly and concisely [Supplemental material]. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Retrieved at Apastyle.org
  14. ^ American Psychological Association. (2007a, April 13–14). Meeting of the Council of Editors [Agenda book]. APA Archives, Washington, DC.
  15. ^ American Psychological Association. (2007b, May 18–20). Meeting of the Publications and Communications Board [Agenda book]. APA Archives, Washington, DC.
  16. ^ APA.org
  17. ^ Epstein, J. (2009, October 13). Correcting a style guide: Scholars turn to style manuals for guidance in authoring error-free manuscripts, but what happens when the manual itself is laden with errors?" Inside Higher Education.. Retrieved from Insidehighered.com
  18. ^ Journals By Title
  19. ^ "PsycINFO Journal Coverage". American Psychological Association. January 2010. http://www.apa.org/pubs/databases/psycinfo/coverage.aspx. Retrieved 2010-01-25.
  20. ^ APA .org
  21. ^ APA.org
  22. ^ "Noted psychologist Theodore Blau". St. Petersburg Times. February 1 2003. http://www.sptimes.com/2003/02/01/Hillsborough/Noted_psychologist_Th.shtml. Retrieved 2007-09-14.
  23. ^ R. L. Spitzer, "The diagnostic status of homosexuality in DSM-III: a reformulation of the issues", American Journal of Psychiatry 138 (1981): 210-15.
  24. ^ "An Instant Cure", Time; April 1, 1974.
  25. ^ The A.P.A. Normalization of Homosexuality, and the Research Study of Irving Bieber
  26. ^ a b "Just the Facts About Sexual Orientation & Youth: A Primer for Principals, Educators and School Personnel". American Academy of Pediatrics, American Counseling Association, American Association of School Administrators, American Federation of Teachers, American Psychological Association, American School Health Association, The Interfaith Alliance, National Association of School Psychologists, National Association of Social Workers, National Education Association. 1999. http://www.apa.org/pi/lgbc/publications/justthefacts.html. Retrieved 2007-08-28.
  27. ^ "American Medical Association policy regarding sexual orientation". American Medical Association. 2007-07-11. http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/about-ama/our-people/member-groups-sections/glbt-advisory-committee/ama-policy-regarding-sexual-orientation.shtml. Retrieved 2007-07-30.
  28. ^ "Homosexuality and Adolescence" (PDF). Pediatrics, Official Journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics 92: 631–634. 1993. http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/reprint/92/4/631.pdf. Retrieved 2007-08-28.
  29. ^ "Physician Assistants vote on retail clinics, reparative therapy". SpiritIndia.com. http://www.spiritindia.com/health-care-news-articles-10085.html. Retrieved 2007-08-28.
  30. ^ [1]
  31. ^ Resolution on Appropriate Affirmative Responses to Sexual Orientation Distress and Change Efforts
  32. ^ APA Press Release, August 20, 2007
  33. ^ Stephen Soldz: Psychologists, Guantánamo, and Torture: A Profession Struggles to Save Its Soul (ZNet, 3 August 2006); Protecting the Torturers Bad Faith and Distortions From the American Psychological Association (CounterPunch, 6 September 2006); Letter to the CEO of the American Psychological Association (OpEdNews.com, 28 November 2006)
  34. ^ Statement on Interrogation (PDF file)
  35. ^ New AMA ethical policy opposes direct physician participation in interrogation
  36. ^ Ethicalapa.com
  37. ^ APA.org

External links

Categories: Academic organizations | American medical associations | Organizations established in 1892 | American professional bodies | Psychology organizations | School accreditors

 

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