Consul (abbrev. cos.; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterised by a republican form of government. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, c. 509 BC, and lasted 482 years until its subversion, through a series of civil wars, into the Principate form of government and the Imperial period and an appointive office under the Empire The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean. The term is used to describe the Roman state during and after the time of the first emperor, Augustus. The title was also used in other city states and also revived in modern states, notably in the First French Republic The French First Republic was founded on 22 September 1792, by the newly established National Convention. The First Republic lasted until the declaration of the First French Empire in 1804 under Napoleon. This period is characterized by the fall of the monarchy, the establishment of the National Convention and the infamous Reign of Terror, the. The relating adjective is consular, from the Latin consularis (which has been used, substantiated, as a title in its own right).
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Ancient Rome
Main article: Roman consul Each year, two consuls were elected together, to serve for a one-year term. Each consul was given veto power over his colleague and the officials would alternate each month. However, after the establishment of the Empire, the consuls were merely a figurative representative of Rome’s republican heritage and held very little power and authority,During the Roman Republic The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterised by a republican form of government. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, c. 509 BC, and lasted 482 years until its subversion, through a series of civil wars, into the Principate form of government and the Imperial period, the consuls were the highest civil and military magistrates, serving as the heads of government Head of government is the chief officer of the executive branch of a government, often presiding over a cabinet. In a parliamentary system, the head of government is often styled Prime Minister, President of the Government, Premier, etc. In presidential republics or absolute monarchies, the head of government may be the same person as the head of for the Republic. New consuls were elected every year. There were two consuls and they ruled together. However, after the establishment of the Empire, the consuls were merely a figurative representative of Rome’s republican heritage and held very little power and authority, with the emperor acting as the supreme leader.
Other uses in antiquity
Other city states
While many cities (as in Gaul) had a double-headed chief magistracy, often another title was used, such as Duumvir or native styles such as Meddix, but Consul was used in some.
Private sphere
It was not uncommon for an organisation under Roman private law to copy the terminology of state and city institutions for its own statutory agents. The founding statute, or contract, of such an organisation was called lex, 'law'. The people elected each year were patricians, members of the upper class.
In feudal times
In republican cities in Italy, the chief magistrates Chief Magistrate is a generic designation for a public official whose office—individual or collegial—is the highest in his or her class, in either of the fundamental meanings of Magistrate : as a major political and administrative office (in a republican form of government, at state or lower level), and/or as a judge (in a given jurisdiction, had the title of Consul; thus there have been governments lead by consuls in Bologna Bologna listen (Italian pronunciation: [boˈloɲːa], from the Latin Bononia, Bulåggna; pronounced [buˈlʌɲːa] in Bolognese dialect) is the capital city of Emilia-Romagna, in the Po Valley (Pianura Padana in Italian) of Northern Italy. The city lies between the Po River and the Apennine Mountains, more specifically, between the Reno River and, Novara (with one Maggiore as head of state), Trani Trani is a seaport of Apulia, southern Italy, on the Adriatic Sea, in the new Province of Barletta-Andria-Trani , and 40 km by railway West-Northwest of Bari, Treviso Treviso listen (Italian pronunciation: [treˈvizo], Venetian: Trevixo, French: Trévise, Latin: Tarvisium) is a city and comune in Veneto, northern Italy. It is the capital of the province of Treviso and the municipality has 82,206 inhabitants (2008): some 3,000 live within the Venetian walls (le Mura) or in the historical and monumental center,.
The same happened in some cities in France, especially in the Mediterranean south, e.g., Avignon Avignon is a commune in the Vaucluse department in southeastern France, Limoges Limoges is a city and commune, the capital of the Haute-Vienne department and the administrative capital of the Limousin région in west-central France.
The city-state of Genoa Genoa (Italian: Genova listen , pronounced [ˈdʒɛːnova]; in Genoese and Ligurian: Zena, pronounced [ˈzeːna]; in Latin and, archaically, in English: Genua) is a city and an important seaport in northern Italy, the capital of the Province of Genoa and of the region of Liguria. The city has a population of about 610,000 and the urban area has a, unlike ancient Rome, bestowed the title of Consul on various state officials, not necessarily restricted to the highest. Among these were Genoese officials stationed in various Mediterranean ports, whose role included helping Genoese merchants and sailors in difficulties with the local authorities. This institution, with its name, was later emulated by other powers and is reflected in the modern usage of the word (see Consul (representative) The title Consul is used for the official representatives of the government of one state in the territory of another, normally acting to assist and protect the citizens of the consul's own country, and to facilitate trade and friendship between the people of the country to whom he or she is accredited and the country of which he or she is a).
In England, the clerks of Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester, made a practice of using the Latin Latin or sometimes Roman is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Although often considered a dead language, in view of the fact that it has no native, fluent speakers, Latin continues to be taught in schools and has been, and currently is, used in the process of new word production in modern languages from many word consul rather than the more common comes when translating his title of 'Earl Earl was the Anglo-Saxon form and jarl the Scandinavian form of a title meaning "chieftain" and referring especially to chieftains set to rule a territory in a king's stead. In Scandinavia, it became obsolete in the Middle Ages and was replaced with duke ; in later medieval Britain, it became the equivalent of the continental count (in' — though he was not, and made no pretense of being, an elected magistrate of any sort. Modern historians sometimes call him "Robert the Consul", for that reason, though he himself and his contemporaries did not use that name.
Modern republics
French republican consuls
In 1799, revolutionary France France (pronounced /ˈfrænts/ frantss or /ˈfrɑːnts/ frahnts; French pronunciation (help·info): [fʁɑ̃s]), officially the French Republic (French: République française, pronounced: [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a state in Western Europe with several of its overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, enacted a constitution that conferred supreme executive powers upon three officials that bore the title Consul as chief magistracy of the republic. In reality, however, the state was de facto under personal control of the First Consul First Consul was a title used by Napoleon Bonaparte following his seizure of power in France. When he overthew the government on 18 Brumiare he replaced the Directory with the Consulate, with him at the head as First Consul, general Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleon Bonaparte , was a military and political leader of France and Emperor of the French as Napoleon I, whose actions shaped European politics in the early 19th century, so in political terms it was more like a re-edition of Julius Caesar's and Octavian's triumvirates A triumvirate is a political regime dominated by three powerful individuals, each a triumvir (pl. triumviri). The arrangement can be formal or informal, and though the three are usually equal on paper, in reality this is rarely the case. The term can also be used to describe a state with three different military leaders who all claim to be the.
Originally the consuls were to hold office for a period of ten years, but in 1802 the term was extended to life. The French consulate ceased to exist when Bonaparte was declared Emperor An emperor is a (male) monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress is the female equivalent. As a title, "empress" may indicate the wife of an emperor (empress consort) or a woman who rules in her own right (empress regnant). Emperors and empresses are generally recognized to be above of the French in 1804.
Roman republican consuls
The Napoleonic Roman Republic The Roman Republic was proclaimed on February 15, 1798 after Louis Alexandre Berthier, a general of Napoleon, had invaded the city of Rome on February 10 (15 February 1798 – 23 June 1800) was headed by multiple consuls:
- 15 February – 20 March 1798: (Provisional Consuls) Briganti, Carlo Luigi Costantini, Pio Camillo, duca Bonelli-Crescenzi, Gioacchino Pessuti, Antonio Bassi & Maggi, Stampa & Liborio Angelucci
- 20 March – September 1798: Liborio Angelucci, Giacomo De Mattheus, Panazzi, Reppi & Ennio Quirino Visconti
- September – 27 November 1798: Brigi, Calisti, Francesco Pierelli, Giuseppe Rey, Federico Maria Domenico Michele Zaccaleoni
- 27 November – 12 December 1798: occupation by the Kingdom of Naples The Kingdom of Naples, comprising the southern part of the Italian peninsula, was the remainder of the old Kingdom of Sicily after secession of the island of Sicily as a result of the Sicilian Vespers rebellion of 1282. Known to contemporaries as the Kingdom of Sicily, it is dubbed Kingdom of Naples to distinguish it from the island-based polity
- 29 November – 12 December 1798: Provisional Government of five (Princes Giambattista Borghese, Paolo-Maria Aldobrandini & Prince Gibrielli, Marchese Camillo Massimo & Giovanni Ricci).
- 12 December 1798 – 24 July 1799: the previous consuls restored
- 11 July – 28 September 1799: occupation by France
- 30 September 1799 – 23 June 1800: occupation by Naples
Bolognese Republic
The short-lived Bolognese Republic, proclaimed in 1796 as a French client republic During its occupation of neighboring parts of Europe during the French Revolutionary Wars, France established republican regimes in these territories. The French Republic claimed to support the spread of the republican principles in Europe, but most of these client republics, or sister republics, were in fact a means of controlling the occupied in the Central Italian city of Bologna Bologna listen (Italian pronunciation: [boˈloɲːa], from the Latin Bononia, Bulåggna; pronounced [buˈlʌɲːa] in Bolognese dialect) is the capital city of Emilia-Romagna, in the Po Valley (Pianura Padana in Italian) of Northern Italy. The city lies between the Po River and the Apennine Mountains, more specifically, between the Reno River and, had a government consisting of nine consuls and its head of state was the Presidente del Magistrato, i.e., chief magistrate Chief Magistrate is a generic designation for a public official whose office—individual or collegial—is the highest in his or her class, in either of the fundamental meanings of Magistrate : as a major political and administrative office (in a republican form of government, at state or lower level), and/or as a judge (in a given jurisdiction,, a presiding office held for four months by one of the consuls. As noted above, Bologna already had Consuls at some parts of its Medieval history.
Paraguay
In between series of juntas (and various other short-lived regimes), the young republic was governed by "consuls of the republic" in power (2 consuls alternating in power every 4 months):
- 12 October 1813 – 12 February 1814 José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia y Velasco (1st time)
- 12 February 1814 – 12 June 1814 Fulgencio Yegros y Franco de Torres
- 12 June 1814 – 3 October 1814 José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia y Velasco (2nd time); he stayed on as "supreme dictator" 3 October 1814 – 20 September 1840 (from 6 June 1816 styled "perpetual supreme dictator")
After a few presidents of the Provisional Junta, there were again consuls of the republic, 14 March 1841 – 13 March 1844 (ruling jointly, but occasionally styled "first consul", "second consul"): Carlos Antonio López Ynsfrán (b. 1792 – d. 1862) + Mariano Roque Alonzo Romero (d. 1853) (the lasts of the aforementioned juntistas, Commandant-General of the Army) Thereafter all republican rulers were styled "president".
Revolutionary Greece
Among the many petty local republics that were formed during the first year of the Greek Revolution, prior to the creation of a unified Provisional Government at the First National Assembly at Epidaurus, were:
- The Consulate of Argos Argos is a city in Greece in the Peloponnese 11 kilometres from Nafplion, which was its historic harbour (named supposedly after the legendary hero Nauplius) (from 26 May 1821, under the Senate of the Peloponnese The Peloponnese, Peloponnesos or Peloponnesus is a large peninsula (technically an island since the 1893 construction of the Corinth Canal) and region in southern Greece, forming the part of the country south of the Gulf of Corinth. During the late Middle Ages and the Ottoman era, the peninsula was known as the Morea (Greek: Μωρέας, colloq. ) had a single head of state, styled consul, 28 March 1821 – 26 May 1821: Stamatellos Antonopoulos
- The Consulate of East Greece (Livadeia) (from 15 November 1821, under the Areopagus of East Greece) was headed 1 April 1821 – 15 November 1821 by three Consuls: Lambros Nakos, Ioannis Logothetis & Ioannis Filon
Note: in Greek Greek , an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, is the language of the Greeks. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. In its ancient form, it is the language of classical ancient Greek literature and the New Testament of, the term for "consul" is "ypatos", which translates as "supreme one", and hence does not necessarily imply a joint office.
See also
- Captain Regent The Captains Regent of San Marino are elected every six months by the country's Grand and General Council. The pair serve as heads of state and government. Normally the Regents are chosen from opposing parties. They serve a six-month term. The investiture of the Captains Regent takes place on 1 April and 1 October every year (similar modern position in San Marino's government)
- Consularis (Roman gubernatorial style)
- Chronological listings of Roman consuls (in law always republican Magistrates):
- List of topics related to ancient Rome Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC. In its centuries of existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy to an oligarchic republic to an increasingly autocratic empire which came to dominate South-Western Europe, South-Eastern Europe/
- Political institutions of Rome Categories: Ancient Rome | Roman law | Ancient Rome lists
Sources and references
- Pauly–Wissowa
- WorldStatesmen.org, see each present country
Categories: Ancient Roman titles | Heads of government | Heads of state Categories: Government occupations | Government institutions | Political office-holders by role | Positions of authority | Military ranks of ancient Rome | Latin political phrases | Collective heads of state
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